4304 The questions of whether

题目描述

The questions of whether war is inevitable is one which has concerned many of the worlds g

The questions of whether war is inevitable is one which has concerned many of the worlds great writers. Before considering this question, it will be useful to introduce some related concepts. Conflict, defined as opposition among social entities (统一体，实体) directed against one another, is distinguished from competition, defined as opposition among social entities independently striving for something which is in inadequate supply. Competitors may not be aware of one another, while the parties to a conflict are. Conflict and competition are both categories of opposition, which has been defined as a process by which social entities function in the disservice of one another. Opposition is thus contrasted with cooperation, the process by which social entities function in the service of one another. These definitions are necessary because it is important to emphasize that competition between individuals of groups is inevitable in a world of limited resources, but conflict is not. Conflict, nevertheless, is very likely to occur, and is probably an essential and desirable element of human societies. Many authors have argued for the inevitability of war from the premise that in the struggle for existence among animal species, only the fittest survive. In general, however, this struggle in nature is competition, not conflict. Social animals, such as monkeys and cattle, fight to win or maintain leadership of the group. The struggle for existence occurs not in such fights, but in the competition for limited feeding areas and for the occupancy (占有) of areas free from meat-eating animals. Those who fail in this competition starve to death or become victims to other species. This struggle for existence does not resemble human war, but rather the competition of individuals for jobs, markets, and materials. The essence of the struggle is the competition for the necessities of life that are insufficient to satisfy all. Among nations there is competition in developing resources, trades, skills, and a satisfactory way of life. The successful nations grow and prosper (繁荣); the unsuccessful decline. While it is true that this competition may induce efforts to expand territory at the expense of others, and this leads to conflict, it cannot be said that war-like conflict among nations is inevitable, although competitions are.

In the first paragraph, the author gives the definitions of some terms in order to______.

A．argue for the similarities between animal societies and human societies

B．smooth out the conflicts in human societies

C．distinguish between two kinds of opposition

D．summarize the characteristic features of opposition and cooperation

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